Essay on “Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorders”

Essay on â€Å"Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorders† Abstract. This paper focuses on how Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) is used to treat and manage autism spectrum disorders. Thus, the paper appraises ABA, discussing its important components and how it works. The paper also succinctly discusses about the autism spectrum disorders. Finally, the paper concludes with an analysis of how ABA is used to treat autism spectrum disorders. Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorders. Studies have shown that one of the most effective modes of intervention in ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorders) is Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). ABA is also termed behavioral treatment or behavioral intervention. According to the research done by Wynn Groen (2010), ABA produces comprehensive and long-term improvements in the most essential skill areas in children who have ASD, notwithstanding their age (p 809). Laving (2010) stated that the main objective of ABA as applied to ASD is to maximize the successes, while concurrently, reducing the failures (p763). ABA techniques make use of scientific principles, based on current behavioral learning theorems, to alter conducts in ASD patients by fostering socially-constructive repertoires and minimizing the problematical ones. ABA is a structure-based intervention that places much emphasis on the use of precise high-intensity teaching techniques to enhance language skills (such as imitation, cooperation and attention), and ensure that the a ffected children do obtain a collection of constructive manners (Wynn Groen, 2010). ASD, also termed as PDD (Pervasive Developmental Disorder), is an intense long-term developmental disability which normally manifests itself during the early childhood period. It incorporates a cluster of developmental disorders together with their associated symptoms that have varying levels of intensity.ASD is neuro-behavioral in nature, thus, its effects are severe. Usually, ASD is diagnosed in the child before he or she is three years old. It cause the effects outlined below. Restricted repetitive patterns of behavior characterized by obsession with the sensory features of physical entities. There are impairments in social affinity, with the most common feature being inability to establish and maintain proper peer relationships. There is delayed development of cognitive functions, thus cognitive impairment occurs. Also, there is impairment in communication, both verbal and non-verbal, as evidenced by absent or delayed development of spoken language (Pearson, 2011). It has been postulated that ASD is caused by a neuro-developmental and neuro-operational dysfunction in the brain, though its correlation with the associated behavioral manifestations are still unclear. Also, epidemiological studies have shown a strong correlation between ASD and psychiatric disorders that are genetic in origin, with the hereditary factor in ASD being greater than 90%. It affects boys more than girls with a gender disparity ratio of 4:1, though no scientific model based on genetic studies has been able to explain this discrepancy. The ASD spectrum encompasses autistic disorder, Rett’s disorder, Asperger’s disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder and PDD-NOS (Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified). The common comorbidities associated with ASD are intellectual disabilities, lack of functional speech, behavioral disorders (such as obsessive compulsive disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity syndrome, tics and self-injurious behaviors), anxiety, depression and Bipolar disorder. Screening for ASD is done at two levels; Level I screening with involves developmental surveillance, and Level II screening which involves diagnostic evaluation and comprehensive investigations for developmental disorders (Pearson, 2011). Treatment for ASD can be categorized into two levels. The first level is the treatment of core symptoms, and this involves addressing the developmental, educational, and behavioral requirements of the individual with ASD. The second level of management involves other forms of treatment, such as physical, speech and occupational therapies, which are indispensable in the management of autistic disorder but they do not treat other disorders, for instance, developmental delays (Pearson, 2011). ABA is a treatment program that basically makes use of repetitive reinforcements to teach particular skills to the students, while concurrently, minimizing and/or eradicating the inappropriate behaviors (Mendelsohn, 2010). The nine principles of ABA are outlined below. First of all, there must be an individual program for each and every student. Each program must correspond to the strengths and needs of the student. The second principle is task analysis which involves the assessment for tasks (or skills) that need to be taught. These tasks are then broken down into steps that can be easily taught. The third principle is discrete trial and prompting, which involves teaching each step individually. Fourthly, reinforcement is used to fortify each step taught. Reinforcement involves motivating the students by use of rewards. The fifth principle is repetition and prompts fading. This involves frequent practice of each step until the student masters the required skills. Skill development is the sixth principle. It involves integrating each step systematically until the student can complete the whole task autonomously. The seventh principle is data collection, and this involves frequent compilation of factua l information with the aim of monitoring the progress of the student, in terms of acquisition of the required skills, and, the effectiveness of the program as a whole. The eighth principle is generalization. This involves teaching the student how to perform the whole task at different times, among different kinds of people and in different settings. The ninth principle is developmental skill building. Here the learnt skills are integrated developmentally with the aim of building a strong foundation that will serve as the basis for inspiration for self-initiated long-term learning. Thus, ABA describes how to teach (Mendelsohn, 2010). ABA has seven characteristics or dimensions which are explained below. The applied characteristics takes into consideration the short-term behavioral change, effects of these behavioral change in the person with ASD with regards to interpersonal interactions between him or her and the family, close relatives, educators and the general public. The second dimension is behavioral change, and this behavioral change must be measured using objective parameters and not non-behavioral substitutes. The analytical dimension in the applied setting is demonstrated by behavioral control and maintenance of moral ethical standards. The technological characteristic implies that the descriptions made in ABA studies or researches are detailed, clear and precise. Hence, such studies can be replicated by a researcher. The conceptually systematic characteristic involves the utilization of procedures and interventions; and the interpretation of the obtained results within the limits of the principles of t he procedures employed. The dimension of effectiveness analyses the practicability of ABA procedures in treating ASD and achieving the essential practical or social objectives. Finally, the generality dimension involves maintenance or continued gradual changes and enhancements of a particular skill after the behavioral interventions, for that specific skill, has been withdrawn for a significant period (Mendelsohn, 2010). ABA treatment of ASD involves the three step procedure explained below. First of all, there is the antecedent which involves the use of tact, mand, intraverbals, autoclitics; or physical/verbal stimulus, for instance, a request or command. Secondly, there is the response to the stimulus, such as a specific resultant behavioral response to a specific stimulus or lack of response to that particular stimulus. Finally, there is the consequence, which is either the establishment of a positive reinforcement, or lack of response for an inappropriate behavior. The behavior is measured using the following parameters: repeatability, temporal extent, temporal locus and derivative measures (Wynn Groen, 2010). The skills in ABA are divided into small discrete tasks which are subsequently taught using prompts that gradually fade out as the required skills are grasped. Positive reinforcement is done using verbal praise or any tangible object that the student considers rewarding. Punishments are normally discouraged, but non-injurious methods of punishment such as a light spray of water on the face, may be used as a mode of intervention in a child who is engaging in activities that may cause self-injury (Wynn Groen, 2010). Individual programming has two main components: the curriculum and the ABA teaching methods. The curriculum for students with ASD mostly caters for the areas that need attention. These areas include communication, difficult behaviors, language development, independent functioning, life skills, leisure and play skills; and, social interaction and emotional development. Hence, the ABA teaching methods encompasses the following strategies: prompt, fading, task analysis, discrete trail training, shaping and chaining, pivotal response training, modeling, social scripting or script fading, video instruction, priming, incidental teaching, and structured peer-play interactions (Mendelsohn, 2010). Reinforcement in ABA is a systematic consequence aimed at increasing the frequency of desirable behavior, not just using rewards to motivate the student. Thus, reinforcement must be linked directly to the values of the student, and needs to be planned and monitored closely. The procedure for reinforcement is as follows. Initially, the behavior that needs to be modified is selected. Next, the most potent reinforces that will alter this behavior are selected. The reinforcements are then made immediately when the behavior under consideration is manifested. The reinforcement is more effective when the reinforcer follows the behavior closely. Lastly, data on that specific behavior is collected prior to, for the duration of and subsequent to the teaching strategy or intervention that had been put in place for monitoring the progress of the student (Mendelsohn, 2010). The data collection tools of ABA are more useful than the common assessment methods. The assessment methods used in the teaching strategy include the following: data collection and graphing, benchmarks, checklists, rubrics, running records, anecdotal records and video recording. The following measurements are used during data collection: frequency of demonstration of the required skills, the number of times these skills were done appropriately, duration of time of the execution of these skills, measurement of how much prompting is utilized in skill development, and the ration of correct to incorrect responses. Data is collected during three occasions; prior to, during and subsequent to teaching. Prior to teaching data collection is used to establish the baseline for skill development. Data that is collected during teaching is used to assess the effectiveness of the materials and teaching strategies used, and the progress of the acquisition of the required skills. Data collection subs equent to teaching is used to assess skill acquisition and the maintenance of the acquired skills, for example, can the student demonstrate the skills several months after it was taught? The collected data is then recorded (Mendelsohn, 2010). The recorded data is used for troubleshooting and decision-making processes. Troubleshooting involves searching for patterns in various aspects of school programming and in the school environment that slow down the standard rate of progress, and initiating the necessary systematic changes (Mendelsohn, 2010). In generalization, the educators must frequently change the materials in order for the student to develop a broader concept of the skill being taught. The standard rule in generalization is that a skill must be demonstrated or performed in at least three different settings, with three different individuals and at three different times using various teaching materials and teaching aids. Also, the skill is considered to be mastered or leant effectively when the student can demonstrate the skill correctly and independently in 9 out of every 10 attempts (Mendelsohn, 2010). An effective ABA teaching strategy must put into consideration plans for transitions. Examples of transition in an individual with ASD includes transition into a new school setting, between grade levels, between different activities in different settings, transition from high school life into adulthood and life transitions in general. An effective plan encompasses the following two features; identification of the transition challenges for the student and setting up of clear goals and a teaching stratagem for managing and addressing these challenges(Wynn Groen, 2010).

John Holland s Theory Of Types - 847 Words

John Holland’s theory of types is one of the most researched and frequently used theories of career development. Holland viewed career choice and career adjustment as an expression of one’s personality (Ohler Levinson, 2012). Holland theorized that people express themselves through their interest and values, in their career choices and work experiences (Sharf, 2013). Holland posited the people are drawn to certain careers because of their personality preferences in addition to other variable like age, gender, culture, social economic status, and level of education, which are representative of the individual’s background (Patrick, Eliason, Thompson, 2005). John Holland argued that people’s impressions and generalizations about work are usually accurate, and by researching these ‘stereotypes’ he concluded that people personalities can be matched to certain work environments (Sharf, 2013). Holland proposed that people’s satisfaction, success, and stability in the work environment is determined by the degree of congruence between one’s personality and one’s chosen occupation (Miller Miller, 2005). Holland proposed that people can be categorized according to six personality types: Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C) (Ohler Levinson, 2012). Realistic (R) Realistic personality types like to work with animals, tools, or machines. Realistic individuals generally avoid social activities, such as teaching,Show MoreRelatedHolland’s Six Personality Types1315 Words   |  6 PagesSix Occupational Personality Types by - John L. Holland John L Holland, Ph.D., professor emeritus at Johns Hopkins University, is a psychologist who devoted his professional life to researching issues related to career choice and satisfaction. 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Theories From a self-efficacy standpoint, as evidenced by my CDMSE scores, I personally feel like I am a self-confident and competent woman. All the statements that were assessed on the CDMSE are worth reevaluating and reassessing over time for the detection of changes. John Krumbotz happenstance theory is based on the belief that throughout one’s life incidental and unpredictable occurrences ariseRead MorePersonal Statement : Mechanical Engineering Degree1324 Words   |  6 Pagesdid to my school s board of education in pursuit of a grant. All in all, my physics teacher gave me lots of opportunities to excel in physics and helped me to grow and love the idea of becoming an engineer. All occupations, including engineering, involve interests from the six main groups in the Holland Code. According to the Holland Code, a theory of careers and vocational choice--based upon personality types--that was initially developed by American psychologist John L. Holland, my top three personality

Pro Choice Abortion Essay Example For Students

Pro Choice Abortion Essay ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYABORTIONOur world today is full of unsolved, devisive and controversial issues. Mostof them relate to our morals, ethics and religion, thus creating a very strong yesand no, or good and bad side. Like the Chinese Yin and Yang sign, abortionhas a very prominent black and white side but also contains traces of each in thealternating colour. This shows that if you were to come to any kind of conclusionon abortion, there would still be a downside to it, and that is primarily why theworld cannot agree on this sensitive and emotional issue. Being female myself, I can understand why a woman would want to have anabortion. Being pregnant and wishing you werent is probably the worst feeling awoman can have. Knowing that if you brought a child into the world and youdidnt want it, or you would have to give it up for adoption is such a dishearteningway to start off, and you and the un-born child would be so much better off ifyou were to terminate the pregnancy and wait for a more appropriate time, or inthe case of rape, put the past behind you and move on. Society has attached a stigma to abortion. When we hear of women havingabortions, we seem to automatically think that she wasnt careful enough, or shedidnt use contraception. We forget to stop and think about the other possiblereasons she may have accidentally become pregnant. Just forgetting to take onepill per packet can reduce its effectiveness and also taking anti-biotics, or being illcan also undermine the way the pill works. Condoms can tear or be forgotten,and emergen cy contraceptives like the morning after pill are underprescribed andnot readily available. Would it surprise you that over 50% of women getting anabortion in Britain used some form of contraception when they got pregnant? This obviously shows that women are having huge problems with usingcontraception, and something needs to be done about it now. Starting byeducating women more on the pill and the way it works, the after effects ofabortion, and the risks of having an abortion. We dont want abortion to becomethe easy way out though. People just need to know more about it and have tosatisfy specific criteria before having the pregnancy terminated, for instance byinterviews with doctors, given unbiased advice, and consultations with people oftheir specific religion. It is hugely important to reduce the number of unwantedpregnancies but we have to accept that abortion is a fact of life for many women, Ann Furedi of the British pregnancy Advisory Service (BPAS). In the United States doctors who administer abortions are being targetedby anti-abortion activists and some have actually been murdered. The doctors arenow having to take many precautions including wearing bullet-proof vests andpulling blinds and shades down in their homes. One obstetrician-gynecologist hadto shut down his medical practice after he was terrorized by protesters who haddistributed wanted posters with his photograph, mailed threats to his home andlisted his name on a baby butchers web site. What makes a person think thatjust because they feel strongly about an issue it gives them the right to go and killsomeone, or harass them till they fear for the safety of their family? In Scotland the Roman Catholic Church offered a 12yr old pregnant girlmoney in the attempt to prevent her from having an abortion. She was advised byher teachers and a social worker to terminate the pregnancy mainly because of herage and her familys financial position. But her parents were more convin ced withthe advice given to them by the Scottish churchs Pro-Life Initiative, a programthat offers alternatives to abortion. A writer of the Tabloid Daily Mirror arguesthat offering 12yr olds cash for babies is tantamount to bribery..and it stinks tohigh heaven. But Monsignor Tom Conelly a spokeperson for the Catholic Churchin Scotland said that the churchs offer gives the girl real choice, so the child in thewomb does not suffer at all, irrespective of age or race or creed. If the girl choseto go through with the abortion, it would able her to continue on with her lifenormally and go on with her schooling. Unfortunately though, if she did have anabortion there would be the risk that she may not be able to conceive in lateryears. This is a high price to pay, but maybe she should have thought about someof the consequences of having sex at such an early age. It all comes back to sexeducation and informing children about the consequences and responsibilities thatcome with having sex. P ap smears, contraception, STDs and abortion should all beaddressed at school and this should all be re-inforced by the parents at home. We have to consider ourselves very lucky here in Australia. At least we aregiven the choice to choose abortion, unlike in some countries like the Philippineswhere most of the population are predominantly Roman Catholic. It was in 1969that Justice Menhennit ruled that abortion was legal in Australia, to protect thelife or health of the woman. This has made abortion available to all who need it,and women can go to Family Planning Centres all over Australia and receive theadvice and support that they need. So far about 20,000 Victorian women havean abortion in a year, but that doesnt compare to the statistics in Britain where 1in every 4 women will have an abortion at some stage. Lets just keep abortion asthe very last option and not travel down the path in which Britain and the USA areheading. We dont want babies getting thrown out in bins like vegeta ble wastenow do weBIBLIOGRAPHY1) Doctor quits, cites anti-abortion threatshttp://www.washingtonpost.com/cgi-bin/gx.cgi/AppLogic2) Half UK Women seeking abortion used contraceptionhttp://dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/999013/sc/health_contraception_2.html3) Abortion Informationhttp://www.medico.abort.jk24/ss_health.com4) Scotland Church Chided on Abortionhttp://dailynews.yahoo.com/h/ap/19991011/wl/scotland_pregnancy_4.html5) Abortion at Family Planning Centres171 Berkeley Street, Carlton, 3053Melbourne, Australia

Divorce And Children Essay Example For Students

Divorce And Children Essay It seems that more and more marriages are falling apart everyday. Divorce ratesseen to be climbing astronomically. In so many of these divorces there arechildren to be considered. What is best for the child? Who will get custody?Will the child be scarred for life? Its really hard to say. The overalleffects on our children vary according to the factors involved. I am going toattempt to discuss a few of the problems that can occur with children ofdivorced families and what parents can do to ease the transition. I will limitthis discussion to infantile age thru early elementary aged children. Letsstart with understanding the parents role concerning being together or beingapart. Obviously, two parents can provide children with far more guidance,sustenance, and protection than one, and are more likely to prevent the kinds ofpsychological disturbance that may result from deprivations of these necessitiesWhen one parent is temporarily absent from the intact home, it is likely thatthe other will be available to ratify the childs needs in a loving way. Thisis not so readily the situation in the divorced home. ( Gardner, 1977). In thisstatement he illustrates the importance of having both parents together. Thiscan be emphasized further with a statement from Buchanan, Maccoby, and Dornbusch(1996). Childrens parents are their anchors. Parents provide the structurefor childrens daily lives, and even when parents are not functioning verywell, children depend on them for a sense of security that enables them to copewith their developmental tasks. When one parent leaves the home, the childrealizes a shattering possibility; parents are not always there. It is not hardto realize that divorce can have a devastating effect on children. Lets brakeit down by age groups; infants, toddlers, and so on. DeBorg (1997) states thatinfants do not understand conflict, but may react to changes in parentsenergy level and mood. She goes on to list possible reactions like loss ofappetite; upset stomach may spit up more; more fretful or anxious. She saysthat parents should keep their normal routines, and stay calm in frontof the child. Toddlers understand that a parent has moved away, butdoesnt understand why. I know that my son was very confused. He was onlytwo when my wife and I separated. He seemed to display allot of anger andinsecurity. DeBorg says that a toddlers reactions could include more crying,clinging; problems sleeping; regression to infant behaviors; and worry whenparent is out of sight. My son, his name is Cody, definitely fits thisprofile. He cried constantly. It seemed that nothing would calm him down. If yougot him to go to sleep, good luck keeping him there. As far as infant behaviorsgo, his biggest problems were wanting to be rocked like when he was younger andtrying to go back to the bottle. DeBorg say to allow some return to infantilebehaviors, but set clear limits. Easier said than done I can assure you. Preschoolers dont understand what separation or divorce means, theyrealize one parent is not as active in his or her life (DeBorg, 1997). Their reactions could include pleasant and unpleasant fantasies; feelinguncertain about the future; feeling responsible; and they may hold their angerinside. Deborgs first strategy listed for parents is to encourage thechild to talk. This makes sense if you are concerned with straitening outthese issues of anger and feeling responsible. It seems to be the only way toreally understand your childs problems. Gardner (1977, p. 42) talks ofsomething called the oedipal phase. He explains that this occurs betweenages three and five. This is the period when a child develops a strongpossessive attachment to the opposite-sexed parent. Gardner says that attimes the attraction can take on mildly sexual overtones toward theopposite-sexed parent, but the sexual desires are generally not forintercourse, the child being too young to appreciate that act. He explainsthat if a boy begins sleeping in Mothers bed thoughout the night, an acontinual basis, the likelihood that oedipal problems will arise is great .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .postImageUrl , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:hover , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:visited , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:active { border:0!important; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:active , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: DRINKING Essaythis holds true for a father and daughter when they are the ones who remaintogether following the separation(p. 91). Learning of this has raised myconcerns for my son. His mother lets him sleep with her every night, and shebelieves nothing is wrong with the arrangement. This is a factor I will dealwith on my own, as soon as I figure out what to do. Continuing on to earlyelementary age, childrens understanding becomes more apparent. DeBorg (1997)says that children begin to understand what divorce is, and understandthat her or his parents wont live together anymore and that they may not loveeach other as before. Reactions, as she describes, could include feelin gs ofdeception and a sense of loss. Children have hopes that parents will get backtogether, and feel rejected by the parent who left. Children of thisage can have symptoms of illness like loss of appetite, sleep problems,diarrhea and may complain of headaches or stomach aches. DeBorg doesnot list any ways of curving these symptoms of illness, however she does listsome strategies for helping these children adjust. She writes, encourage thechild to talk about how he or she feels; answer all questions about changes;and reassure the child. From my standpoint, these ideas hold true regardlessof the situation. You should always encourage your children to talk about therefeelings and always take them seriously. A word of advice: Children can adjustto divorce. It is years of subsequent fighting between their parents, or aninappropriate child custody plan that can take a terrible toll (Olsen, 1998). So if you want to help your children succeed, then help them adjust to yourdivorce together; mom and dad. Never let them feel that they cannot have arelationship with the other parent if at all possible. BibliographyGardner, R. A. (1977). The Parents Book About Divorce. Garden City, NY:Doubleday Company, Inc. Buchanan, C. M., Maccoby, E. E., Dornbusch,S. M. (1996). Adolescents After Divorce. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress. DeBorg, K. (1997). Focus on Kids: The Effects of Divorce On Children. http://www.nncc.org/child.dev/effectsdivorce.html Olsen, P. (1998). ChildCustody Savvy. http://www.savvypsych.com/Psychology

Virtual Reality1 Essay Example For Students

Virtual Reality1 Essay Virtual Reality What it is and How it Works Imagine being able to point into the sky and fly. Or perhaps walk through space and connect molecules together. These are some of the dreams that have come with the invention of virtual reality. With the introduction of computers, numerous applications have been enhanced or created. The newest technology that is being tapped is that of artificial reality, or virtual reality (VR). When Morton Heilig first got a patent for his Sensorama Simulator in 1962, he had no idea that 30 years later people would still be trying to simulate reality and that they would be doing it so effectively. Jaron Lanier first coined the phrase virtual reality around 1989, and it has stuck ever since. Unfortunately, this catchy name has caused people to dream up incredible uses for this technology including using it as a sort of drug. This became evident when, among other people, Timothy Leary became interested in VR. This has also worried some of the researchers w ho are trying to create very real applications for medical, space, physical, chemical, and entertainment uses among other things. In order to create this alternate reality, however, you need to find ways to create the illusion of reality with a piece of machinery known as the computer. This is done with several computer-user interfaces used to simulate the senses. Among these, are stereoscopic glasses to make the simulated world look real, a 3D auditory display to give depth to sound, sensor lined gloves to simulate tactile feedback, and head-trackers to follow the orientation of the head. Since the technology is fairly young, these interfaces have not been perfected, making for a somewhat cartoonish simulated reality. Stereoscopic vision is probably the most important feature of VR because in real life, people rely mainly on vision to get places and do things. The eyes are approximately 6.5 centimeters apart, and allow you to have a full-colour, three-dimensional view of the world. Stereoscopy, in itself, is not a very new idea, but the new twist is trying to generate completely new images in real- time. In 1933, Sir Charles Wheatstone invented the first stereoscope with the same basic principle being used in todays head-mounted displays. Presenting different views to each eye gives the illusion of three dimensions. The glasses that are used today work by using what is called an electronic shutter. The lenses of the glasses interleave the left-eye and right-eye views every thirtieth of a second. The shutters selectively block and admit views of the screen in sync with the interleaving, allowing the proper views to go into each eye. The problem with this method though is that you have to wear special glasses. Most VR researchers use complicated headsets, but it is possible to create stereoscopic three-dimensional images without them. One such way is through the use of lenticular lenses. These lenses, known since Herman Ives experimented with them in 1930, allo w one to take two images, cut them into thin vertical slices and interleave them in precise order (also called multiplexing) and put cylinder shaped lenses in front of them so that when you look into them directly, the images correspond with each eye. This illusion of depth is based on what is called binocular parallax. Another problem that is solved is that which occurs when one turns their head. Nearby objects appear to move more than distant objects. This is called motion parallax. Lenticular screens can show users the proper stereo images when moving their heads well when a head- motion sensor is used to adjust the effect. Sound is another important part of daily life, and thus must be simulated well in order to create artificial reality. Many scientists including Dr. Elizabeth Wenzel, a researcher at NASA, are convinced the 3D audio will be useful for scientific visualization and space applications in the ways the 3D video is somewhat limited. She has come up with an interestin g use for virtual sound that would allow an astronaut to hear the state of their oxygen, or have an acoustical beacon that directs one to a trouble spot on a satellite. The Convolvotron is one such device that simulates the location of up to four audio channels with a sort of imaginary sphere surrounding the listener. This device takes into account that each person has specialized auditory signal processing, and personalizes what each person hears. Using a position sensor from Polhemus, another VR research company, it is possible to move the position of sound by simply moving a small cube around in your hand. The key to the Convolvotron is something called the Head- Related Transfer Function (HRTF), which is a set of mathematically modelable responses that our ears impose on the signals they get from the air. In order to develop the HRTF, researchers had to sit people in an anechoic room surrounded with 144 different speakers to measure the effects of hearing precise sounds from eve ry direction by using tiny microphone probes placed near the eardrums of the listener. The way in which those microphones distorted the sound from all directions was a specific model of the way that persons ears impose a complex signal on incoming sound waves in order to encode it in their spatial environment. The map of the results is then converted to numbers and a computer performs about 300 million operations per second (MIPS) to create a numerical model based on the HRTF which makes it possible to reconfigure any sound source so that it appears to be coming from any number of different points within the acoustic sphere. This portion of a VR system can really enhance the visual and tactile responses. Imagine hearing the sound of footsteps behind you in a dark alley late at night. That is how important 3D sound really is. The third important sense that we use in everyday life is that of touch. There is no way of avoiding the feeling of touch, and thus this is one of the technolog ies that is being researched upon most feverishly. The two main types of feedback that are being researched are that of force- reflection feedback and tactile feedback. Force feedback devices exert a force against the user when they try to push something in a virtual world that is heavy. Tactile feedback is the sensation of feeling an object such as the texture of sandpaper. Both are equally important in the development of VR. Currently, the most successful development in force- reflective feedback is that of the Argonne Remote Manipulator (ARM). It consists of a group of articulated joints, coiled by long bunches of electrical cables. The ARM allows for six degrees of movement (position and orientation) to give a true feel of movement. Suspended from the ceiling and connected by a wire to the computer, this machine grants a user the power to reach out and manipulate 3D objects that are not real. As is the case at the University of North Carolina, it is possible to dock molecules us ing VR. Simulating molecular forces and translating them into physical forces allows the ARM to push back at the user if he tries to dock the molecules incorrectly. Tactile feedback is just as important as force feedback in allowing the user to feel computer-generated objects. There are several methods for providing tactile feedback. Some of these include inflating air bladders in a glove, arrays of tiny pins moved by shape memory wires, and even fingertip piezoelectric vibrotactile actuators. The latter method uses tiny crystals that vibrate when an electric current stimulates them. This design has not really taken off however, but the other two methods are being more actively researched. According to a report called Tactile Sensing in Humans and Robots, distortions inside the skins cause mechanosensitive nerve terminals to respond with electrical impulses. Each impulse is approximately 50 to 100mV in magnitude and 1 ms in duration. However, the frequency of the impulses (up to a m aximum of 500/s) depends on the intensity of the combination of the stresses in the area near the receptor which is responsive. In other words, the sensors which affect pressure in the skin are all basically the same, but can convey a message over and over to give the feeling of pressure. Therefore, in order to have any kind of tactile response system, there must be a frequency of about 500 Hz in order to simulate the tactile accuracy of the human. Right now however, the gloves being used are used as input devices. One such device is that called the DataGlove. This well-fitting glove has bundles of optic fibers attached at the knuckles and joints. Light is passed through these optic fibers at one end of the glove. When a finger is bent, the fibers also bend, and the amount of light that is allowed through the fiber can be converted to determine the location at which the user is. The type of glove that is wanted is one that can be used as an input and output device. Jim Hennequin has worked on an Air Muscle that inflates and deflates parts of a glove to allow the feeling of various kinds of pressure. Unfortunately at this time, the feel it creates is somewhat crude. The company TiNi is exploring the possibility of using shape memory alloys to create tactile response devices. TiNi uses an alloy called nitinol as the basis for a small grid of what look like ball-point-pen tips. Nitinol can take the shape of whatever it is cast in, and can be reshaped. Then when it is electrically stimulated, the alloy it can return to its original cast shape. The hope is that in the future some of these techniques will be used to form a complete body suit that can simulate tactile sensation. Being able to determine where in the virtual world means you need to have orientation and position trackers to follow the movements of the head and other parts of the body that are interfacing with the computer. Many companies have developed successful methods of allowing six degrees of freed om including Polhemus Research, and Shooting Star Technology. Six degrees of freedom refers to a combination Cartesian coordinate system and an orientation system with rotation angles called roll, pitch and yaw. The ADL-1 from Shooting Star is a sophisticated and inexpensive (relative to other trackers) 6D tracking system which is mounted on the head, and converts position and orientation information into a readable form for the computer. The machine calculates head/object position by the use of a lightweight, multiply-jointed arm. Sensors mounted on this arm measure the angles of the joints. The computer-based control unit uses these angles to compute position-orientation information so that the user can manipulate a virtual world. The joint angle transducers use conductive plastic potentiometers and ball bearings so that this machine is heavy duty. Time-lag is eliminated by the direct-reading transducers and high speed microprocessor, allowing for a maximum update rate of approxim ately 300__h)_0*0*0*___measurements/second. Another system developed by Ascension Technology does basically the same thing as the ADL-1, but the sensor is in the form of a small cube which can fit in the users hand or in a computer mouse specially developed to encase it. The Ascension Bird is the first system that generates and senses DC magnetic fields. The Ascension Bird first measures the earths magnetic field and then the steady magnetic field generated by the transmitter. The earths field is then subtracted from the total, which allows one to yield true position and orientation measurements. The existing electromagnetic systems transmit a rapidly varying AC field. As this field varies, eddy currents are induced in nearby metals which causes the metals to become electromagnets which distort the measurements. The Ascension Bird uses a steady DC magnetic filed which does not create an eddy current. The update rate of the Bird is 100 measurements/second. However, the Bird has a sma ll lag of about 1/60th of a second which is noticeable. Researchers have also thought about supporting the other senses such as taste and smell, but have decided that it is unfeasible to do. Smell would be possible, and would enhance reality, but there is a certain problem with the fact that there is only a limited spectrum of smells that could be simulated. Taste is basically a disgusting premise from most standpoints. It might be useful for entertainment purposes, but has almost no purpose for researchers or developers. For one thing, people would have to put some kind of receptors in their mouths and it would be very unsanitary. Thus, the main senses that are relied on in a virtual reality are sight, touch, and hearing. Applications of Virtual Reality Virtual Reality has promise for nearly every industry ranging from architecture and design to movies and entertainment, but the real industry to gain from this technology is science, in general. The money that can be saved examining the feasibility of experiments in an artificial world before they are done could be great, and the money saved on energy used to operate such things as wind tunnels quite large. The best example of how VR can help science is that of the molecular docking experiments being done in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Scientists at the University of North Carolina have developed a system that simulated the bonding of molecules. But instead of using complicated formulas to determine bonding energy, or illegible stick drawings, the potential chemist can don a high-tech head-mounted display, attach themselves to an artificial arm from the ceiling and actually push the molecules together to determine whether or not they can be connected. The chemical bonding process takes on a sort of puzzle-like quality, in which even children could learn to form bonds using a trial and error method. Architectural designers have also found that VR can be useful in visualizing what their buildings will look like when they are put together. Often, using a 2D diagram to represent a 3D home is confusing, and the people that fund large projects would like to be able to see what they are paying for before it is constructed. An example which is fascinating would be that of designing an elementary school. Designers could walk in the school from a childs perspective to gain insight on how high that water fountain is, or how narrow the halls are. Product designers could also use VR in similar ways to test their products. NASA and other aerospace facilities are concentrating research on such things as human factors engineering, virtual prototyping of buildings and military devices, aerodynamic analysis, flight simulation, 3D data visualization, satellite position fixing, and planetary exploration simulations. Such things as virtual wind tunnels have been in development for a couple years and could save money and energy for aerospace companies. Medical researchers have been using VR techniques to syn thesize diagnostic images of a patients body to do predictive modeling of radiation treatment using images created by ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, and X- ray. A radiation therapist in a virtual would could view and expose a tumour at any angle and then model specific doses and configurations of radiation beams to aim at the tumour more effectively. Since radiation destroys human tissue easily, there is no allowance for error. Also, doctors could use virtual cadavers to practice rare operations which are tough to perform. This is an excellent use because one could perform the operation over and over without the worry of hurting any human life. However, this sort of practice may have its limitations because of the fact that it is only a virtual world. As well, at this time, the computer-user interfaces are not well enough developed and it is estimated that it will take 5 to 10 years to develop this technology. In Japan, a company called Matsu*censored*a Electric World Ltd. is using VR to sell their products. They employ a VPL Research head-mounted display linked to a high-powered computer to help prospective customers design their own kitchens. Being able to see what your kitchen will look like before you actually refurnish could help you save from costly mistakes in the future. The entertainment industry stands to gain a lot from VR. With the video game revolution of bigger and better games coming out all the time, this could be the biggest breakthrough ever. It would be fantastic to have sword fights which actually feel real. As well, virtual movies (also called vroomies) are being developed with allow the viewer to interact with the characters in the movie. Universal Studios among others is developing a virtual reality amusement park which will incorporate these games and vroomies. As it stands, almost every industry has something to gain from VR and in the years to comes, it appears that the possibilities are endless. The Future of Virtual Reality In the coming years, as more research is done we are bound to see VR become as mainstay in our homes and at work. As the computers become faster, they will be able to create more realistic graphic images to simulate reality better. As well, new interfaces will be developed which will simulate force and tactile feedback more effectively to enhance artificial reality that much more. This is the birth of a new technology and it will be interesting to see how it develops in the years to come. However, it may take longer than people think for it to come into the mainstream. Millions of dollars in research must be done, and only select industries can afford to pay for this. Hopefully, it will be sooner than later though. It is very possible that in the future we will be communicating with virtual phones. Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) in Japan is developing a system which will allow one person to see a 3D image of the other using VR techniques. In the future, it is conceivable that businessmen may hold conferences in a virtual meeting hall when they are actually at each ends of the world. NTT is developing a new method of telephone transmission using fiber optics which will allow for much larger amounts of information to be passed through the phone lines. This system is called the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) which will help allow VR to be used in conjunction with other communication methods. Right now, it is very expensive to purchase, with the head-mounted display costing anywhere from about $20,000 to $1,000,000 for NASAs Super Cockpit. In the future, VR will be available to the end-user at home for under $1000 and will be of better quality than that being developed today. The support for it will be about as good as it is currently for plain computers, and it is possible that VR could become a very useful teaching tool. Sources of Information Books and Periodicals Benningfield, Damond. The Virtues of Virtual Reality. Star Date, July/Aug. 1991 , pp. 14-15. Burrill, William. Virtual Reality. Toronto Star, 13 July 1991, pp. J1-3. Brill, Louis M. Facing Interface Issues. Computer Graphics World, April 1992, pp. 48-58. Daviss, Bennett. Grand Illusions. Discover, June 1990, pp. 36-41. Emmett, Arielle. Down to Earth: Practical Applications of Virtual Reality Find Commercial Uses. Computer Graphics World, March 1992, pp. 46-54. Peterson, Ivars. Recipes for Artificial Realities. Science News, 24 Nov. 1990, pp. 328-329. Peterson, Ivars. Looking-Glass Worlds. Science News, 4 Jan 1992, pp. 8-15. Porter, Stephen. Virtual Reality. Computer Graphics World, March 1992, pp. 42-43. Rheingold, Howard. Virtual Reality. Toronto: Summit Books, 1991. Tisdale, Sallie. Its Been Real. Esquire, April 1991, pp. 36-40. Various. Virtual Reality Special Report. San Francisco: Meckler Publishing, 1992. Companies Contacted: Ascension Technology Corp. P.O Box 527 Burlington, VT 05402 (802)655-7879 Polhemus Inc. P.O Box 560 Colchester, VT 05446 (802)655-3 159 Shooting Star Technology 1921 Holdom Ave. Burnaby, BC V5B 3W4 (604)298-8574 Virtual Technologies P.O. Box 5984 Stanford, CA 94309 (415)599-2331 VPL Research Inc. 656 Bair Island Rd. Third Floor Redwood City, CA 94063 (415)361-1710 Bibliography: .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 , .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 .postImageUrl , .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 , .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451:hover , .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451:visited , .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451:active { border:0!important; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451:active , .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451 .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u51a62e8eddf264030b26b5794b1bf451:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Bomb That Saved Millions Essay We will write a custom essay on Virtual Reality1 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now

Free Essays on Management And Leadership

The experience during the (name of course) at (name of College) has given me a broader view on managment. With the vast amount of material given to me in class with prior modules, I ¹ve increased my understanding of an effective management. One ¹s skill in management requires constant practice. Mangers who grow too complacement or too lazy to continue practicing will eventually find their carrer in decay. In this paper, I will present my concept of an ideal managment environment. Good management is practiced in many forms and in a great diversity of business situations. There are basic principles of how to manage, but they would be applied differently in different situations. In an effective organization led by good managers, there is a clear set of strategic objectives I consider skill essential in an effective management: â‚ ¬ Communication â‚ ¬ Motivation â‚ ¬ Listening â‚ ¬ Teamwork â‚ ¬ Interpersonal Skill â‚ ¬ Goals After I explain the six essential skills in an effective management, I will state my own style/preferences in management and explain how I ¹ll try to incorporate them into my effective management views. There are many more concepts I have learned about effective management but I will focus on what areas I believe can relate to my needs in my organization. It is worthy to note that a successful organization have managers who have a great deal of flexibility in establishing a workable leadership style. Successful managers, in addition, realize that times, tasks, and circumstances change on a daily basis. Communication Nothing could be easier than failing to communicate. For many years, managers think they can belittle their employees with the  ³I ¹m the boss, get to work ² attitude. It is different today in most places. More poeople are beginning to understand how important good comunication really is. Communicating well is something every one of us does everday in our lives... Free Essays on Management And Leadership Free Essays on Management And Leadership The experience during the (name of course) at (name of College) has given me a broader view on managment. With the vast amount of material given to me in class with prior modules, I ¹ve increased my understanding of an effective management. One ¹s skill in management requires constant practice. Mangers who grow too complacement or too lazy to continue practicing will eventually find their carrer in decay. In this paper, I will present my concept of an ideal managment environment. Good management is practiced in many forms and in a great diversity of business situations. There are basic principles of how to manage, but they would be applied differently in different situations. In an effective organization led by good managers, there is a clear set of strategic objectives I consider skill essential in an effective management: â‚ ¬ Communication â‚ ¬ Motivation â‚ ¬ Listening â‚ ¬ Teamwork â‚ ¬ Interpersonal Skill â‚ ¬ Goals After I explain the six essential skills in an effective management, I will state my own style/preferences in management and explain how I ¹ll try to incorporate them into my effective management views. There are many more concepts I have learned about effective management but I will focus on what areas I believe can relate to my needs in my organization. It is worthy to note that a successful organization have managers who have a great deal of flexibility in establishing a workable leadership style. Successful managers, in addition, realize that times, tasks, and circumstances change on a daily basis. Communication Nothing could be easier than failing to communicate. For many years, managers think they can belittle their employees with the  ³I ¹m the boss, get to work ² attitude. It is different today in most places. More poeople are beginning to understand how important good comunication really is. Communicating well is something every one of us does everday in our lives...

Fa his 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Fa his 1 - Essay Example Notably, the need for sovereignty and the existence of a nation emerged as the prominent reasons. The collapse of the military system also enabled the rise to peace. The representatives from the eleven Soviet republics including Ukraine, Belarus, the Russian Federation, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan and others met in the Kazakh city. They made resolutions to terminate their membership in the Soviet Union. Instead, the countries agreed to form a commonwealth of independent states like the Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia Baltic republics that declared their disinterest from the USSR. Implementation of the numerous reforms by the Soviet leader Gorbachev during his rule also facilitated the fall of Soviet Union. He later expressed dissatisfaction in the dissolution of his nation making him leave the job on 25 December. (Maxwell, 2014) The Cold War occurred in three categories namely the West, East, and Non-aligned groups. The United States commanded the West. It comprised of countries with democratic political systems. Likewise, the Soviet Union led the East comprising of countries with communist political organizations. The non-aligned group never sided with either the East or West. Meanwhile, Harry Truman was the first American leader to fight the Cold War. He applied various policies including the Truman Doctrine. In this, he authorized a plan to provide money and military support to countries threatened by communism. The success of the system evidenced when it helped stop the communists from taking control of Turkey and Greece (Paul, 2013).The Marshall Plan policy also helped to avert the challenges of communists. It supported the governments and economies of Western Europe countries thus limiting the success of communism. â€Å"The Berlin Airlift was a remarkable event in the Cold War. After World War Two, the United States and its Allies divided Germany making Berlin a part of communist East Germany. Berlin