Essay on “Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorders”

Essay on â€Å"Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorders† Abstract. This paper focuses on how Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) is used to treat and manage autism spectrum disorders. Thus, the paper appraises ABA, discussing its important components and how it works. The paper also succinctly discusses about the autism spectrum disorders. Finally, the paper concludes with an analysis of how ABA is used to treat autism spectrum disorders. Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorders. Studies have shown that one of the most effective modes of intervention in ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorders) is Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). ABA is also termed behavioral treatment or behavioral intervention. According to the research done by Wynn Groen (2010), ABA produces comprehensive and long-term improvements in the most essential skill areas in children who have ASD, notwithstanding their age (p 809). Laving (2010) stated that the main objective of ABA as applied to ASD is to maximize the successes, while concurrently, reducing the failures (p763). ABA techniques make use of scientific principles, based on current behavioral learning theorems, to alter conducts in ASD patients by fostering socially-constructive repertoires and minimizing the problematical ones. ABA is a structure-based intervention that places much emphasis on the use of precise high-intensity teaching techniques to enhance language skills (such as imitation, cooperation and attention), and ensure that the a ffected children do obtain a collection of constructive manners (Wynn Groen, 2010). ASD, also termed as PDD (Pervasive Developmental Disorder), is an intense long-term developmental disability which normally manifests itself during the early childhood period. It incorporates a cluster of developmental disorders together with their associated symptoms that have varying levels of intensity.ASD is neuro-behavioral in nature, thus, its effects are severe. Usually, ASD is diagnosed in the child before he or she is three years old. It cause the effects outlined below. Restricted repetitive patterns of behavior characterized by obsession with the sensory features of physical entities. There are impairments in social affinity, with the most common feature being inability to establish and maintain proper peer relationships. There is delayed development of cognitive functions, thus cognitive impairment occurs. Also, there is impairment in communication, both verbal and non-verbal, as evidenced by absent or delayed development of spoken language (Pearson, 2011). It has been postulated that ASD is caused by a neuro-developmental and neuro-operational dysfunction in the brain, though its correlation with the associated behavioral manifestations are still unclear. Also, epidemiological studies have shown a strong correlation between ASD and psychiatric disorders that are genetic in origin, with the hereditary factor in ASD being greater than 90%. It affects boys more than girls with a gender disparity ratio of 4:1, though no scientific model based on genetic studies has been able to explain this discrepancy. The ASD spectrum encompasses autistic disorder, Rett’s disorder, Asperger’s disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder and PDD-NOS (Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified). The common comorbidities associated with ASD are intellectual disabilities, lack of functional speech, behavioral disorders (such as obsessive compulsive disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity syndrome, tics and self-injurious behaviors), anxiety, depression and Bipolar disorder. Screening for ASD is done at two levels; Level I screening with involves developmental surveillance, and Level II screening which involves diagnostic evaluation and comprehensive investigations for developmental disorders (Pearson, 2011). Treatment for ASD can be categorized into two levels. The first level is the treatment of core symptoms, and this involves addressing the developmental, educational, and behavioral requirements of the individual with ASD. The second level of management involves other forms of treatment, such as physical, speech and occupational therapies, which are indispensable in the management of autistic disorder but they do not treat other disorders, for instance, developmental delays (Pearson, 2011). ABA is a treatment program that basically makes use of repetitive reinforcements to teach particular skills to the students, while concurrently, minimizing and/or eradicating the inappropriate behaviors (Mendelsohn, 2010). The nine principles of ABA are outlined below. First of all, there must be an individual program for each and every student. Each program must correspond to the strengths and needs of the student. The second principle is task analysis which involves the assessment for tasks (or skills) that need to be taught. These tasks are then broken down into steps that can be easily taught. The third principle is discrete trial and prompting, which involves teaching each step individually. Fourthly, reinforcement is used to fortify each step taught. Reinforcement involves motivating the students by use of rewards. The fifth principle is repetition and prompts fading. This involves frequent practice of each step until the student masters the required skills. Skill development is the sixth principle. It involves integrating each step systematically until the student can complete the whole task autonomously. The seventh principle is data collection, and this involves frequent compilation of factua l information with the aim of monitoring the progress of the student, in terms of acquisition of the required skills, and, the effectiveness of the program as a whole. The eighth principle is generalization. This involves teaching the student how to perform the whole task at different times, among different kinds of people and in different settings. The ninth principle is developmental skill building. Here the learnt skills are integrated developmentally with the aim of building a strong foundation that will serve as the basis for inspiration for self-initiated long-term learning. Thus, ABA describes how to teach (Mendelsohn, 2010). ABA has seven characteristics or dimensions which are explained below. The applied characteristics takes into consideration the short-term behavioral change, effects of these behavioral change in the person with ASD with regards to interpersonal interactions between him or her and the family, close relatives, educators and the general public. The second dimension is behavioral change, and this behavioral change must be measured using objective parameters and not non-behavioral substitutes. The analytical dimension in the applied setting is demonstrated by behavioral control and maintenance of moral ethical standards. The technological characteristic implies that the descriptions made in ABA studies or researches are detailed, clear and precise. Hence, such studies can be replicated by a researcher. The conceptually systematic characteristic involves the utilization of procedures and interventions; and the interpretation of the obtained results within the limits of the principles of t he procedures employed. The dimension of effectiveness analyses the practicability of ABA procedures in treating ASD and achieving the essential practical or social objectives. Finally, the generality dimension involves maintenance or continued gradual changes and enhancements of a particular skill after the behavioral interventions, for that specific skill, has been withdrawn for a significant period (Mendelsohn, 2010). ABA treatment of ASD involves the three step procedure explained below. First of all, there is the antecedent which involves the use of tact, mand, intraverbals, autoclitics; or physical/verbal stimulus, for instance, a request or command. Secondly, there is the response to the stimulus, such as a specific resultant behavioral response to a specific stimulus or lack of response to that particular stimulus. Finally, there is the consequence, which is either the establishment of a positive reinforcement, or lack of response for an inappropriate behavior. The behavior is measured using the following parameters: repeatability, temporal extent, temporal locus and derivative measures (Wynn Groen, 2010). The skills in ABA are divided into small discrete tasks which are subsequently taught using prompts that gradually fade out as the required skills are grasped. Positive reinforcement is done using verbal praise or any tangible object that the student considers rewarding. Punishments are normally discouraged, but non-injurious methods of punishment such as a light spray of water on the face, may be used as a mode of intervention in a child who is engaging in activities that may cause self-injury (Wynn Groen, 2010). Individual programming has two main components: the curriculum and the ABA teaching methods. The curriculum for students with ASD mostly caters for the areas that need attention. These areas include communication, difficult behaviors, language development, independent functioning, life skills, leisure and play skills; and, social interaction and emotional development. Hence, the ABA teaching methods encompasses the following strategies: prompt, fading, task analysis, discrete trail training, shaping and chaining, pivotal response training, modeling, social scripting or script fading, video instruction, priming, incidental teaching, and structured peer-play interactions (Mendelsohn, 2010). Reinforcement in ABA is a systematic consequence aimed at increasing the frequency of desirable behavior, not just using rewards to motivate the student. Thus, reinforcement must be linked directly to the values of the student, and needs to be planned and monitored closely. The procedure for reinforcement is as follows. Initially, the behavior that needs to be modified is selected. Next, the most potent reinforces that will alter this behavior are selected. The reinforcements are then made immediately when the behavior under consideration is manifested. The reinforcement is more effective when the reinforcer follows the behavior closely. Lastly, data on that specific behavior is collected prior to, for the duration of and subsequent to the teaching strategy or intervention that had been put in place for monitoring the progress of the student (Mendelsohn, 2010). The data collection tools of ABA are more useful than the common assessment methods. The assessment methods used in the teaching strategy include the following: data collection and graphing, benchmarks, checklists, rubrics, running records, anecdotal records and video recording. The following measurements are used during data collection: frequency of demonstration of the required skills, the number of times these skills were done appropriately, duration of time of the execution of these skills, measurement of how much prompting is utilized in skill development, and the ration of correct to incorrect responses. Data is collected during three occasions; prior to, during and subsequent to teaching. Prior to teaching data collection is used to establish the baseline for skill development. Data that is collected during teaching is used to assess the effectiveness of the materials and teaching strategies used, and the progress of the acquisition of the required skills. Data collection subs equent to teaching is used to assess skill acquisition and the maintenance of the acquired skills, for example, can the student demonstrate the skills several months after it was taught? The collected data is then recorded (Mendelsohn, 2010). The recorded data is used for troubleshooting and decision-making processes. Troubleshooting involves searching for patterns in various aspects of school programming and in the school environment that slow down the standard rate of progress, and initiating the necessary systematic changes (Mendelsohn, 2010). In generalization, the educators must frequently change the materials in order for the student to develop a broader concept of the skill being taught. The standard rule in generalization is that a skill must be demonstrated or performed in at least three different settings, with three different individuals and at three different times using various teaching materials and teaching aids. Also, the skill is considered to be mastered or leant effectively when the student can demonstrate the skill correctly and independently in 9 out of every 10 attempts (Mendelsohn, 2010). An effective ABA teaching strategy must put into consideration plans for transitions. Examples of transition in an individual with ASD includes transition into a new school setting, between grade levels, between different activities in different settings, transition from high school life into adulthood and life transitions in general. An effective plan encompasses the following two features; identification of the transition challenges for the student and setting up of clear goals and a teaching stratagem for managing and addressing these challenges(Wynn Groen, 2010).

John Holland s Theory Of Types - 847 Words

John Holland’s theory of types is one of the most researched and frequently used theories of career development. Holland viewed career choice and career adjustment as an expression of one’s personality (Ohler Levinson, 2012). Holland theorized that people express themselves through their interest and values, in their career choices and work experiences (Sharf, 2013). Holland posited the people are drawn to certain careers because of their personality preferences in addition to other variable like age, gender, culture, social economic status, and level of education, which are representative of the individual’s background (Patrick, Eliason, Thompson, 2005). John Holland argued that people’s impressions and generalizations about work are usually accurate, and by researching these ‘stereotypes’ he concluded that people personalities can be matched to certain work environments (Sharf, 2013). Holland proposed that people’s satisfaction, success, and stability in the work environment is determined by the degree of congruence between one’s personality and one’s chosen occupation (Miller Miller, 2005). Holland proposed that people can be categorized according to six personality types: Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C) (Ohler Levinson, 2012). Realistic (R) Realistic personality types like to work with animals, tools, or machines. Realistic individuals generally avoid social activities, such as teaching,Show MoreRelatedHolland’s Six Personality Types1315 Words   |  6 PagesSix Occupational Personality Types by - John L. Holland John L Holland, Ph.D., professor emeritus at Johns Hopkins University, is a psychologist who devoted his professional life to researching issues related to career choice and satisfaction. 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Pro Choice Abortion Essay Example For Students

Pro Choice Abortion Essay ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYABORTIONOur world today is full of unsolved, devisive and controversial issues. Mostof them relate to our morals, ethics and religion, thus creating a very strong yesand no, or good and bad side. Like the Chinese Yin and Yang sign, abortionhas a very prominent black and white side but also contains traces of each in thealternating colour. This shows that if you were to come to any kind of conclusionon abortion, there would still be a downside to it, and that is primarily why theworld cannot agree on this sensitive and emotional issue. Being female myself, I can understand why a woman would want to have anabortion. Being pregnant and wishing you werent is probably the worst feeling awoman can have. Knowing that if you brought a child into the world and youdidnt want it, or you would have to give it up for adoption is such a dishearteningway to start off, and you and the un-born child would be so much better off ifyou were to terminate the pregnancy and wait for a more appropriate time, or inthe case of rape, put the past behind you and move on. Society has attached a stigma to abortion. When we hear of women havingabortions, we seem to automatically think that she wasnt careful enough, or shedidnt use contraception. We forget to stop and think about the other possiblereasons she may have accidentally become pregnant. Just forgetting to take onepill per packet can reduce its effectiveness and also taking anti-biotics, or being illcan also undermine the way the pill works. Condoms can tear or be forgotten,and emergen cy contraceptives like the morning after pill are underprescribed andnot readily available. Would it surprise you that over 50% of women getting anabortion in Britain used some form of contraception when they got pregnant? This obviously shows that women are having huge problems with usingcontraception, and something needs to be done about it now. Starting byeducating women more on the pill and the way it works, the after effects ofabortion, and the risks of having an abortion. We dont want abortion to becomethe easy way out though. People just need to know more about it and have tosatisfy specific criteria before having the pregnancy terminated, for instance byinterviews with doctors, given unbiased advice, and consultations with people oftheir specific religion. It is hugely important to reduce the number of unwantedpregnancies but we have to accept that abortion is a fact of life for many women, Ann Furedi of the British pregnancy Advisory Service (BPAS). In the United States doctors who administer abortions are being targetedby anti-abortion activists and some have actually been murdered. The doctors arenow having to take many precautions including wearing bullet-proof vests andpulling blinds and shades down in their homes. One obstetrician-gynecologist hadto shut down his medical practice after he was terrorized by protesters who haddistributed wanted posters with his photograph, mailed threats to his home andlisted his name on a baby butchers web site. What makes a person think thatjust because they feel strongly about an issue it gives them the right to go and killsomeone, or harass them till they fear for the safety of their family? In Scotland the Roman Catholic Church offered a 12yr old pregnant girlmoney in the attempt to prevent her from having an abortion. She was advised byher teachers and a social worker to terminate the pregnancy mainly because of herage and her familys financial position. But her parents were more convin ced withthe advice given to them by the Scottish churchs Pro-Life Initiative, a programthat offers alternatives to abortion. A writer of the Tabloid Daily Mirror arguesthat offering 12yr olds cash for babies is tantamount to bribery..and it stinks tohigh heaven. But Monsignor Tom Conelly a spokeperson for the Catholic Churchin Scotland said that the churchs offer gives the girl real choice, so the child in thewomb does not suffer at all, irrespective of age or race or creed. If the girl choseto go through with the abortion, it would able her to continue on with her lifenormally and go on with her schooling. Unfortunately though, if she did have anabortion there would be the risk that she may not be able to conceive in lateryears. This is a high price to pay, but maybe she should have thought about someof the consequences of having sex at such an early age. It all comes back to sexeducation and informing children about the consequences and responsibilities thatcome with having sex. P ap smears, contraception, STDs and abortion should all beaddressed at school and this should all be re-inforced by the parents at home. We have to consider ourselves very lucky here in Australia. At least we aregiven the choice to choose abortion, unlike in some countries like the Philippineswhere most of the population are predominantly Roman Catholic. It was in 1969that Justice Menhennit ruled that abortion was legal in Australia, to protect thelife or health of the woman. This has made abortion available to all who need it,and women can go to Family Planning Centres all over Australia and receive theadvice and support that they need. So far about 20,000 Victorian women havean abortion in a year, but that doesnt compare to the statistics in Britain where 1in every 4 women will have an abortion at some stage. Lets just keep abortion asthe very last option and not travel down the path in which Britain and the USA areheading. We dont want babies getting thrown out in bins like vegeta ble wastenow do weBIBLIOGRAPHY1) Doctor quits, cites anti-abortion threatshttp://www.washingtonpost.com/cgi-bin/gx.cgi/AppLogic2) Half UK Women seeking abortion used contraceptionhttp://dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/999013/sc/health_contraception_2.html3) Abortion Informationhttp://www.medico.abort.jk24/ss_health.com4) Scotland Church Chided on Abortionhttp://dailynews.yahoo.com/h/ap/19991011/wl/scotland_pregnancy_4.html5) Abortion at Family Planning Centres171 Berkeley Street, Carlton, 3053Melbourne, Australia

Divorce And Children Essay Example For Students

Divorce And Children Essay It seems that more and more marriages are falling apart everyday. Divorce ratesseen to be climbing astronomically. In so many of these divorces there arechildren to be considered. What is best for the child? Who will get custody?Will the child be scarred for life? Its really hard to say. The overalleffects on our children vary according to the factors involved. I am going toattempt to discuss a few of the problems that can occur with children ofdivorced families and what parents can do to ease the transition. I will limitthis discussion to infantile age thru early elementary aged children. Letsstart with understanding the parents role concerning being together or beingapart. Obviously, two parents can provide children with far more guidance,sustenance, and protection than one, and are more likely to prevent the kinds ofpsychological disturbance that may result from deprivations of these necessitiesWhen one parent is temporarily absent from the intact home, it is likely thatthe other will be available to ratify the childs needs in a loving way. Thisis not so readily the situation in the divorced home. ( Gardner, 1977). In thisstatement he illustrates the importance of having both parents together. Thiscan be emphasized further with a statement from Buchanan, Maccoby, and Dornbusch(1996). Childrens parents are their anchors. Parents provide the structurefor childrens daily lives, and even when parents are not functioning verywell, children depend on them for a sense of security that enables them to copewith their developmental tasks. When one parent leaves the home, the childrealizes a shattering possibility; parents are not always there. It is not hardto realize that divorce can have a devastating effect on children. Lets brakeit down by age groups; infants, toddlers, and so on. DeBorg (1997) states thatinfants do not understand conflict, but may react to changes in parentsenergy level and mood. She goes on to list possible reactions like loss ofappetite; upset stomach may spit up more; more fretful or anxious. She saysthat parents should keep their normal routines, and stay calm in frontof the child. Toddlers understand that a parent has moved away, butdoesnt understand why. I know that my son was very confused. He was onlytwo when my wife and I separated. He seemed to display allot of anger andinsecurity. DeBorg says that a toddlers reactions could include more crying,clinging; problems sleeping; regression to infant behaviors; and worry whenparent is out of sight. My son, his name is Cody, definitely fits thisprofile. He cried constantly. It seemed that nothing would calm him down. If yougot him to go to sleep, good luck keeping him there. As far as infant behaviorsgo, his biggest problems were wanting to be rocked like when he was younger andtrying to go back to the bottle. DeBorg say to allow some return to infantilebehaviors, but set clear limits. Easier said than done I can assure you. Preschoolers dont understand what separation or divorce means, theyrealize one parent is not as active in his or her life (DeBorg, 1997). Their reactions could include pleasant and unpleasant fantasies; feelinguncertain about the future; feeling responsible; and they may hold their angerinside. Deborgs first strategy listed for parents is to encourage thechild to talk. This makes sense if you are concerned with straitening outthese issues of anger and feeling responsible. It seems to be the only way toreally understand your childs problems. Gardner (1977, p. 42) talks ofsomething called the oedipal phase. He explains that this occurs betweenages three and five. This is the period when a child develops a strongpossessive attachment to the opposite-sexed parent. Gardner says that attimes the attraction can take on mildly sexual overtones toward theopposite-sexed parent, but the sexual desires are generally not forintercourse, the child being too young to appreciate that act. He explainsthat if a boy begins sleeping in Mothers bed thoughout the night, an acontinual basis, the likelihood that oedipal problems will arise is great .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .postImageUrl , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:hover , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:visited , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:active { border:0!important; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:active , .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3 .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u329dfc21abdbc15a566de18c9457bbd3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: DRINKING Essaythis holds true for a father and daughter when they are the ones who remaintogether following the separation(p. 91). Learning of this has raised myconcerns for my son. His mother lets him sleep with her every night, and shebelieves nothing is wrong with the arrangement. This is a factor I will dealwith on my own, as soon as I figure out what to do. Continuing on to earlyelementary age, childrens understanding becomes more apparent. DeBorg (1997)says that children begin to understand what divorce is, and understandthat her or his parents wont live together anymore and that they may not loveeach other as before. Reactions, as she describes, could include feelin gs ofdeception and a sense of loss. Children have hopes that parents will get backtogether, and feel rejected by the parent who left. Children of thisage can have symptoms of illness like loss of appetite, sleep problems,diarrhea and may complain of headaches or stomach aches. DeBorg doesnot list any ways of curving these symptoms of illness, however she does listsome strategies for helping these children adjust. She writes, encourage thechild to talk about how he or she feels; answer all questions about changes;and reassure the child. From my standpoint, these ideas hold true regardlessof the situation. You should always encourage your children to talk about therefeelings and always take them seriously. A word of advice: Children can adjustto divorce. It is years of subsequent fighting between their parents, or aninappropriate child custody plan that can take a terrible toll (Olsen, 1998). So if you want to help your children succeed, then help them adjust to yourdivorce together; mom and dad. Never let them feel that they cannot have arelationship with the other parent if at all possible. BibliographyGardner, R. A. (1977). The Parents Book About Divorce. Garden City, NY:Doubleday Company, Inc. Buchanan, C. M., Maccoby, E. E., Dornbusch,S. M. (1996). Adolescents After Divorce. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress. DeBorg, K. (1997). Focus on Kids: The Effects of Divorce On Children. http://www.nncc.org/child.dev/effectsdivorce.html Olsen, P. (1998). ChildCustody Savvy. http://www.savvypsych.com/Psychology